Human Rights Council Discusses the Elimination of Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy, Violence against Women, and the Rights of Internally Displaced Persons

The Human Rights Council this afternoon held an interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, and started a dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences. It also concluded its interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons.

Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, said persons affected by leprosy had a long history of isolation and exclusion and were engaged in a continual struggle to be recognised as individuals with rights. There was still a long way to go to eliminate discriminatory practices and laws, especially in countries where leprosy was endemic. Ms. Miranda-Galarza said she was committed to supporting States in the process of reviewing their legislation to align it with the main United Nations international instruments, facilitating the exchange of good practices, and promoting effective participation and consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their families and their organizations.

In the dialogue, many speakers, among other things, congratulated the Special Rapporteur on her appointment and welcomed her first report, which highlighted the ongoing rights violations endured by individuals with leprosy. Speakers underscored their full support for the mandate and called upon States to cooperate with the Special Rapporteur, including by accepting country visits. States should act decisively and comprehensively to protect the rights of all people affected by leprosy, including children. This included implementing and enforcing anti-discrimination laws and policies; ensuring access to inclusive and equitable public services, including education; and investing in research to better understand and address the unique treatment needs of young children.

Speaking in the dialogue on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members were the European Union, Iran, United Nations Children's Fund, Kuwait, Egypt, Japan, Portugal, Algeria, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Djibouti, China, United States, Sovereign Order of Malta, Côte d'Ivoire, Panama, Brazil, Togo, Cameroon, Venezuela, Angola, South Africa, World Health Organization, India and Morocco.

Also speaking were Rencontre Africaine pour la defense des droits de l'homme, Associazione Comunita Papa Giovanni XXIII and Interfaith International.

Next, the Council started an interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences.

Reem Alsalem, Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, said as she completed her first three-year term as Special Rapporteur on violence against women and girls, she was overcome with a feeling of deep concern. Hard-won women’s rights taken for granted had regressed significantly recently. Presenting her report on prostitution and violence against women and girls, she said it was clear that the system of prostitution entailed severe human rights violations. States had a responsibility to protect and assist victims in a gender-sensitive manner. States should decriminalise prostitution for women and girls, treat them as victims of a cruel system of exploitation and abuse, and provide comprehensive support and exit pathways. They needed to also criminalise the purchase of sexual acts and take stringent actions against pimping.

Ms. Alsalem spoke about her country visit to Poland. Poland took the floor as a country concerned.

In the ensuing dialogue, many speakers, among other things, condemned all forms of violence against women. On the topic of prostitution, speakers said women who were engaged in prostitution could be exposed in violence, exploitation and stigma, and needed specialised support. Some speakers supported the decriminalisation of prostitution to promote the rights of women and presented efforts towards that aim. They said that the decriminalisation of sex work helped to protect the rights of women in the industry by giving them access to better labour rights and working conditions, and better protection from abuse. However, other speakers said prostitution needed to be criminalised because it was a form of exploitation of women and enslavement of women.

Speaking in the discussion on violence against women and girls were Costa Rica on behalf of a group of countries, European Union, United States on behalf of a group of countries, Qatar on behalf of the Gulf Cooperation Council, Jordan on behalf of the League of Arab States, Gambia on behalf of the Group of African States, Iceland on behalf of a group of countries, Chile, Israel, Sierra Leone, Kuwait, Armenia, Iran, Mexico, Canada, Egypt, Czechia, United States, Japan, Maldives, Greece, Slovenia, Algeria, Georgia, Republic of Korea, Netherlands, Belgium, Lesotho, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Iraq.

At the beginning of the meeting, the Council concluded its interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons, the first part of which started in the previous meeting and is summarised here.

In closing remarks, Paula Gaviria Betancur, Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons, said she believed the United Nations Fund for loss and damage should be used to finance relocation measures when relocation was required as a last resort. All the work being done on the ground was very important. Human rights activists played an important role in supporting people facing vulnerability from climate change and disaster, she concluded.

In the discussion, speakers said the situation of internally displaced persons throughout the world was concerning. Such persons were faced with dangerous conditions and were at high risk of human rights violations. Planned relocations could help to mitigate the effects of climate change, but could also lead to forced displacement, one speaker said. Relocation processes needed to preserve cultural identities, and relocated persons’ economic, social and cultural rights needed to be fully respected. Speakers presented measures to support internally displaced persons, including measures promoting sustainable development; reconstruction programmes following natural disasters; and combatting terrorism and promoting peacebuilding in conflict situations.

Speaking in the dialogue on the report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons were South Sudan, Ghana, Morocco, Cabo Verde and State of Palestine.

Also speaking was the National Human Rights Commission of India as well as the following non-governmental organization: Reseau de Formation et de Recherche sur les Migrations Africaines (REFORMAF), BADIL Resource Centre for Palestinian Residency and Refugee Rights, International Service for Human Rights, World Evangelical Alliance, Franciscans International, Plan International, United Nations Watch, Company of the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, Human Rights Now, and Elizka Relief Foundation.

At the end of the meeting, the following States spoke in right of reply: Azerbaijan, Rwanda, Armenia, Indonesia, Israel and Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The webcast of the Human Rights Council meetings can be found here. All meeting summaries can be found here. Documents and reports related to the Human Rights Council’s fifty-sixth regular session can be found here.

The Council will reconvene at 10 a.m. on Monday, 24 June, when it will conclude its interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, before commencing an interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the right to physical and mental health.

Interactive Dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons

The interactive dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons started in the previous meeting and a summary can be found here.

Discussion

Many speakers, among other things, said the situation of internally displaced persons throughout the world was concerning. Internally displaced persons did not choose to leave their homes; they were forced to by conflicts, natural disasters and climate change. They were faced with dangerous conditions and were at high risk of human rights violations. Planned relocations could help to mitigate the effects of climate change, but could also lead to forced displacement, one speaker said. Relocation processes needed to preserve cultural identities, and relocated persons’ economic, social and cultural rights needed to be fully respected.

The numbers of internally displaced persons affected by climate change would continue to increase, one speaker said. Drought and desertification had pushed people from their lands. Climate change loss and damage funds in countries affected by climate change needed to be able to fully cover the needs of people at risk of displacement. The needs of internally displaced persons needed to be considered in climate change and disaster planning.

Internally displaced persons needed support through early warning systems and an enabling environment for return. Support for internally displaced persons from developed countries was too low. The international community needed to support comprehensive approaches that protected the rights and dignity of internally displaced persons.

Some speakers addressed challenges related to internal displacement in a number of countries and regions due to conflict or environmental disasters, and expressed their support to those affected. These people were dealing with enormous stress and needed better access to shelters, livelihood, safety, food, water and basic services. Governments needed to do more to support these people. Some speakers presented national efforts to safeguard and respect the rights of internally displaced persons, including vulnerable girls. Displaced girls could be powerful agents of change, one speaker said, calling on States to empower them and involve them in the policy-making process.

A number of speakers presented national measures to support internally displaced persons, including measures promoting sustainable development; reconstruction programmes following natural disasters; and combatting terrorism and promoting peacebuilding in conflict situations. Speakers called for dialogue between States, civil society organizations and other stakeholders on the rights of internally displaced persons, including in conflict zones. Some speakers called for the universal ratification of the Kampala Convention.

One speaker called on the Special Rapporteur to work with the International Organization for Migration to jointly address internal displacement in the context of climate change. Speakers asked about measures to support civil society organizations working with internally displaced persons.

Concluding Remarks

PAULA GAVIRIA BETANCUR, Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons, in closing remarks, thanked everyone for their contributions during the dialogue. There could be different challenges working with local actors to protect human rights, including the need to understand local contexts. Security was also a very important issue; some local actors may face security risks if relocation was carried out in a sensitive environment. The weak implementation of legal and policy frameworks and the lack of accountability and transparency also presented a challenge. She looked forward to visiting the Marshall Islands this year to assess the situation on the ground and issue recommendations.

Ms. Betancur believed the United Nations fund on loss and damage should be used to finance relocation measures when relocation was required as a last resort. She thanked the Government of South Sudan for their intervention and looked forward to planning her visit in 2024. All the work being done on the ground was very important. Human rights activists played an important role in supporting people facing vulnerability from climate change and disaster. Their role was indispensable, serving as a crucial link between internally displaced people and authorities. They worked at immense risk to ensure the voices of the vulnerable were heard.

Interactive Dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on the Elimination of Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) and their Family Members

Report

The Council has before it the report of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members A/HRC/56/59 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members

Presentation of Report

BEATRIZ MIRANDA-GALARZA, Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, presenting her first report, thanked the Council for appointing her to the mandate and expressed her commitment to fulfilling the mandate. This crucial decision highlighted the Council's recognition of the longstanding exclusion and discrimination faced by persons affected by leprosy and their families globally.

Persons affected by leprosy had a long history of isolation and exclusion, and were engaged in a continual struggle to be recognised as individuals with rights. The various overlapping approaches to leprosy continued to establish barriers for affected individuals to lead rightful lives. Responses were often paternalistic and charity-oriented from a religious and moral perspective. Efforts to raise awareness frequently reinforced negative stereotypes, portraying affected individuals as dangerous and perpetuating the myth of leprosy as highly contagious. From a scientific and administrative perspective, leprosy was viewed merely as a disease that required clinical research. These understandings had led many governments to treat persons affected primarily as disease carriers rather than as individuals with rights.

The work of this mandate was imperative to continue supporting the leprosy rights movement globally and to facilitate societal changes. The creation of the mandate reinforced the visibility of leprosy within the United Nations. Grassroots organizations had become more aware of the importance of their involvement in decision-making processes at the local level, with the mandate playing an encouraging role. This had impacted individuals and their families.

There was still a long way to go to eliminate discriminatory practices and laws, especially in countries where leprosy was endemic. There was a need for further implementation of policies and guidelines on the ground, primarily by Member States. Interviewees called for increased focus on human rights-based care and support systems; crucial intersectional issues and marginalised groups; social, political, and cultural aspects of leprosy; legal and economic dimensions related to leprosy; and conflict and environmental considerations.

Leprosy was both a human rights and a socio-political problem. It evolved alongside global developments, and consequently, the primary challenges confronting humanity were echoed in the experiences of persons affected by leprosy, often with a magnified impact. The mandate was committed to supporting States in the process of reviewing their legislation to align it with the main United Nations international instruments, facilitating the exchange of good practices, and promoting effective participation and consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their families and their organizations.

Ms. Miranda-Galarza said she would promote the training of national actors, including public servants, on the rights of persons affected by leprosy and how to translate them into the design and implementation of public policies. She aimed to contribute to making the world one in which all could live as well as possible; promote a culture of listening, acknowledging and appreciating the presence of persons affected by leprosy and recognising their main role in the mandate; and promote cooperation and the co-production of policies and strategies to achieve not only the objectives of the mandate, but also the goals set by the leprosy rights movement, such as “leaving no one behind”.

During the initial months of the mandate, she had started establishing collaborative partnerships. She had further consulted persons affected about what mattered to them. She intended to focus on co-creating accessible materials and information with the leprosy rights movement to promote the defence of their rights and to enhance their lives.

Achieving the goal of eliminating all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members required both political and material support. Significant changes had positively impacted on many lives, and Ms. Miranda-Galarza said she was committed to ensuring that this progress continued. The collaboration of Member States was critical. She said she would develop and implement actions that would support persons affected by leprosy, their allies and their families in their journey to transform not only their communities but society as a whole.

Discussion

In the discussion, many speakers, among other things, congratulated the Special Rapporteur on her appointment and welcomed her first report, which highlighted the ongoing rights violations endured by individuals with leprosy. Her overview of the impact of the mandate, her working methods, and the goals set for the upcoming years were appreciated. Speakers underscored their full support for the mandate, which sought to foster the understanding of leprosy as a human rights issue into the twenty-first century, guided by an ethics of care.

Although leprosy was a curable disease, it could cause lifelong impairments and post-treatment complications. Therefore, it was key to transition from a purely medicalised approach towards a human rights-based approach, where support, care and assistance were positioned as inherent rights. The perception that leprosy was highly contagious was scientifically inaccurate and contributed to segregation.

Myths and misrepresentations about leprosy perpetuated stigma and discrimination, which hindered diagnosis, treatment, and the fulfilment of civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. These myths had resulted in serious violations and abuse of the rights of persons with leprosy. One speaker expressed their concern at reports of mistreatment endured by children with leprosy within their schools, which included instances of expulsion, segregation, bullying, and abuse. There were many challenges to overcome to ensure people with this disease received equal treatment and fully enjoyed their rights.

Some speakers called upon States to cooperate with the Special Rapporteur, including by accepting country visits. States should act decisively and comprehensively to protect the rights of all people affected by leprosy, including children. This included implementing and enforcing anti-discrimination laws and policies; ensuring access to inclusive and equitable public services, including education; and investing in research to better understand and address the unique treatment needs of young children. Public awareness campaigns were crucial when it came to combatting negative stereotypes of leprosy. New technologies could also be utilised to assist those living with leprosy in their everyday lives. Political commitments must prioritise research into leprosy and social structures to support persons with leprosy.

A number of speakers outlined national actions being taken in their countries to ensure the rights of people with leprosy. These included the creation of national strategies and action plans; directives issued to health care centres and insurance companies; the provision of free health care for those suffering with leprosy, including psychosocial care; ratifying human rights treaties which protected persons with leprosy; preparing resolutions to put towards the Council regarding persons with leprosy; and engaging with initiatives to help fight the disease.

Some States had developed leprosy control strategies and had recorded significant decreases in rates of persons with leprosy in recent years. However, one speaker noted that cases of leprosy had recently increased in their country, despite eradicating it years prior. In these cases, the Government worked closely with civil society to provide care and support to those who were affected. Advocacy groups and non-governmental organizations played a vital role in advocating for the rights of people with leprosy and worked to empower affected individuals by providing support, resources, and opportunities to participate fully in society.

One speaker noted that there was some misinformation in the report regarding the negative impact of religion on persons with leprosy. The speaker called on the Special Rapporteur to verify those statements. Other speakers addressed questions to the Special Rapporteur, including how States could contribute to her efforts in clarifying misconceptions about this disease? What were effective strategies and measures that countries could adopt and implement to tackle leprosy-related discrimination, particularly in rural areas? How could expanded research on leprosy bring awareness to the barriers faced by these persons? How could problems associated with cultural and financial barriers be eliminated?

Concluding Remarks

BEATRIZ MIRANDA-GALARZA, Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, said she valued that speakers had read the report and welcomed its observations. She congratulated States that had implemented policies to fight discrimination against persons with leprosy. She also appreciated States’ support for her mandate.

Leprosy was a complex problem of the twenty-first century. It was connected to other social problems, including problems faced by women, children and migrants, environmental problems, and war and conflict, which all affected the rights of persons with leprosy. One of the main issues she had identified in interviews was the practice of portraying leprosy as a medical problem. Women and girls affected by leprosy faced problems when they had to be the main caregivers in families. Care and support for elderly people with leprosy was also often lacking.

The voices of persons affected by leprosy and their family members needed to be included in policy making on leprosy. Many successful policies had been developed by including these voices. Countries needed to respect the disability rights motto of “nothing about us without us”.

While acknowledging the positive impacts that religion could have on the lives of people, Ms. Miranda-Galarza said she had called for a review of the negative impacts of religion on the lives of people with leprosy. More research was needed in socio-economic issues affecting persons with leprosy, and more funding was needed for such research. She called on States to cooperate with her mandate and thanked States that had extended invitations for country visits.

Issues such as climate change, and war and conflict, and their impact on persons with leprosy would be addressed in an upcoming report. The international community needed to consider the specific needs of this group. Ms. Miranda-Galarza said she had a background in anthropology. She took into account the experiences of people to learn how to respond to their needs. In upcoming reports, she would present stories from persons experiencing problems in daily life, and called on States and stakeholders to reflect on how to solve these problems.

Interactive Dialogue with the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes and Consequences

Reports

The Council has before it the reports of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Reem Alsalem, on prostitution and violence against women (A/HRC/56/48) and her visit to Poland (A/HRC/56/48/Add.1).

Presentation of Reports

REEM ALSALEM, Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, said as she completed her first three-year term as Special Rapporteur on violence against women and girls, she was overcome with a feeling of deep concern. Today, there was no doubt that women and girls globally were at a crossroad. Progress in women’s political and economic participation was hampered due to alarming setbacks. Hard-won rights taken for granted had regressed significantly, exemplified by the blatant disregard for the safety, dignity, and humanity of women and girls in recent conflicts. Warring parties had shown contempt for international human rights and humanitarian laws designed to protect civilians, women and girls, as seen in Gaza, Haiti, Sudan and Ukraine amongst others. Other hard-won rights which had seen significant erosion included restricted access of women and girls to sexual and reproductive health rights, attempts to decriminalise female genital mutilation, and the rise in child marriage.

Many countries, including affluent ones, had justified austerity measures to divert already limited resources away from services and organizations assisting and supporting victims of violence against women and girls. A couple of countries had closed the ministries of women affairs altogether or were considering it. What was most concerning was the continued push in some countries to erase women as a specific group in society. This situation was particularly pronounced in Afghanistan, where women continued to be erased from public life.

In the face of such worrisome setbacks, it was imperative that relevant human rights mechanisms, such as the Commission on the Status of Women, be revitalised. The Beijing +30 offered a chance to step up action to end violence, including to consider a proposal by four countries to adopt an optional protocol to the Convention on the Elimination on Discrimination against Women specifically dedicated to ending violence against women and girls. Ms. Alsalem called on all States to reinstate their financial and political commitment to her mandate.

Today, Ms. Alsalem presented her report on prostitution and violence against women and girls. Prostituted women and girls constituted some of the most marginalised, violated yet forgotten groups in society. She was deeply troubled by the testimonies from survivors and victims of prostitution. It was clear that the system of prostitution entailed severe human rights violations, including physical, psychological, and economic violence, resulting in grave human rights violations, and infringing upon the right to safety, dignity, privacy, health, freedom of movement, and family.

Given these realities, she concluded that prostitution could not be described as work; it was a human rights crisis. It was vital to resist every attempt to sanitise the harmful realities of prostitution, especially by using terminology that was human rights centric. Only by calling issues, phenomenon, and relevant actors by the right terms, could the issue be properly addressed. It was time to recognise prostitution for what was: a system of violence, exploitation, and abuse, made possible by patriarchal norms, economic inequalities, and globalization that normalised the commodification of women and girls. There was also a need to address the causes that accelerated violence against women and girls.

Following an extensive review of legal and policy models presented in the report, Ms. Alsalem advocated for an abolitionist legal framework. States had a responsibility to protect and assist victims in a gender-sensitive manner. States should decriminalise prostitution for women and girls, treat them as victims of a cruel system of exploitation and abuse, and provide comprehensive support and exit pathways. They must also criminalise the purchase of sexual acts and take stringent actions against pimping. Actions must be comprehensive and bold, victim-centred, and sex- and gender-responsive.

Ms. Alsalem also presented the report on her official country visit to Poland, which took place from 27 February to 9 March in 2023. Poland had made notable advancements in gender equality, particularly in promoting women’s economic independence and reducing the gender pay gap. Legal reforms had broadened the definition of domestic violence to encompass sexual, psychological, economic, and cyber violence. However, Ms. Alsalem had also observed considerable obstacles that women and girls in Poland faced in accessing sexual and reproductive health rights as well as other restrictions on civil society and women organizations working on sexual and reproductive health rights.

Statement by Country Concerned

Poland, speaking as a country concerned, welcomed the Special Rapporteur’s visit in 2023. In recent years, Poland had done much to protect women and girls’ rights, including the national action plan against trafficking, policies promoting the rights of women with disabilities and the Roma, and revision of the definition of domestic violence in legislation to cover a wider range of violence. Restraining orders prohibited perpetrators of domestic violence from approaching victims in workplaces, schools and other public locations.

After the visit in 2023, Poland elected a new Government, which established a Ministry mandated to promote equality and combat violence against women and girls. In 2024, Poland doubled the annual budget for countering domestic violence compared to 2022. Poland had ratified the Istanbul Convention and removed obstacles to its implementation. It was developing a growing network of support centres for victims of violence. Poland would continue to exert efforts to advance the rights of women and girls and to protect them from violence.

Discussion

In the discussion, many speakers, among other things, condemned all forms of violence against women. The global fight against gender-based violence was far from over. The COVID-19 pandemic had heightened women’s risk of being subjected to gender-based violence. Some speakers presented national measures to protect women and girls from sexual and gender-based violence and domestic violence, and presented legislation and policy measures toward this aim. They also presented policies to tackle trafficking in women and girls and support victims of trafficking; promote positive masculinity; establish safehouses and support services for victims of violence; support the needs of girls and women with disabilities; improve women’s health, education and employment rights; support women’s access to justice and participation in public life; and address online exploitation of women and girls and the root causes of gender inequalities.

On the topic of prostitution, speakers said that many women who were engaged in prostitution were victims of trafficking and were from low socio-economic backgrounds. These persons could be exposed in violence, exploitation and stigma, and needed specialised support. Prostitution needed to be examined from the perspective of women’s rights, some speakers said. A gender perspective was needed to assess the issue, and the voices of victims of prostitution needed to be heard.

Some speakers supported the decriminalisation of prostitution to promote the rights of women and presented efforts towards that aim. They said that the decriminalisation of sex work helped to protect the rights of women in the industry by giving them access to better labour rights and working conditions, and better protection from abuse. Some speakers said that the term “prostitution” stigmatised persons who engaged in sex work and said that the term “sex work” was preferred. Speakers presented efforts to provide sex workers with access to support services.

Other speakers rejected the argument that the criminalisation of prostitution could result in the persecution of women. Prostitution needed to be criminalised because it was a form of exploitation and enslavement of women, they said. These speakers said that the codification of prostitution had done women a disfavour. They called on countries to impose stricter legislation criminalising prostitution to protect women. One speaker said that all persons who used prostitution should be punished.

Many speakers noted heightened levels of conflict-related sexual and gender-based violence against women in recent years. Conflict-related sexual violence caused lasting trauma for victims and harmed affected communities. Survivors faced stigmatisation, which hindered their access to justice. States needed to provide comprehensive support to survivors.

Several speakers welcomed the recommendations presented in the report and the Special Rapporteur’s opposition to violence against women and sexual exploitation. One speaker said that United Nations experts needed to work in harmony to protect women’s rights.

Speakers asked how States could ensure that the voices of women with disabilities could be heard in policy-making processes; how States could tackle the abuse of women in prostitution and enhance protection; how regulatory frameworks could help women and girls in the fight against sexual exploitation; why the Special Rapporteur had not addressed sexual violence against women committed by Hamas against Israeli women; and how States could contribute to the prevention of technology-assisted trafficking.

Speakers also inquired about how the Special Rapporteur would cooperate with other United Nations entities to advance equality; measures to enhance exit pathways for women in prostitution; education measures that helped to create victim-friendly judicial procedures; ways of addressing the rising number of victims of trafficking; how sex workers were engaged in the development of the report; efforts to involve sex workers in decision-making processes; and whether there was a link between lack of access to safehouses and increases in violence against women.